我们以前已经讨论过Easterlin悖论,在温饱小康之后,经济增长没有显着地增加快乐。这是在整个社会的层面;在个人的层面,可以通过增加相对地位,包括相对收入等,来增加快乐。因此,在整个社会的层面,经济增长比较可能减少快乐,而在个人的层面,金钱或收入与财富会减少快乐的可能性比较低。但不是等于零。
个人的情形
有如Layard等 (2010,第154页)指出,Stevenson & Wolfers (2008)的数据显示,在日本,收入起初提高快乐,但在每人年收入约两万美元时,更高的收入反而减少快乐。
我也看过香港岭南大学公共政策研究中心何泺生教授的一个数据,不快乐占总数的百分比,在所有收入组的平均是8.6%。每一百个人有8到9个人不快乐。低收入者的百分比是约9%强,中等收入的是3.6%,而高收入的是12.7%。高收入人群中,每一百个人有接近13个人不快乐,是中等收入者的3倍半强。根据这个数据,是太多钱反而不快乐。不过,这个数据有些特殊,因为是在2008年的。那年是全球经济危机的年份,有钱人比较多人持有股票等投资,而那年的9月到12月,股票大跌70-80%。在其他年份,这个有钱反而不快乐的数据并不成立。因此,对个人而言,重视金钱未必不理性,但多数人是过分重视了。根据盖洛普世界民意调查的数据,每年收入到约6万到7万5美元后,更多收入并不能增加快乐(Jebb等2018)。
例如美国著名歌唱家迈克尔·杰克逊(Michael Jackson)。据2005年3月14日《澳大利亚人》(The Australian)日报的报导,起诉人Gordon Auchincloss说,“杰克逊濒临破产”,他在2001-2002年,收入是(美元)一千一百至一千两百万之间,但他每年支出三千五百万。他说,“杰克逊对金钱有不能满足的胃口。他有百万富翁的预算,但有亿万富翁的支出习惯”(Lusetich 2005, 第3页)。他能够快乐吗?
在百万富翁中,依靠自己赚钱的,比依靠遗产的更快乐(Donnelly等2018)。 比较多从事积极闲暇活动的,像运动和做义工,比较快乐;从事消极闲暇活动的,像看电视和休息,比较不快乐 (Smeets等2018)。
悲惨增长:社会的情形
所谓悲惨增长(immiserizing growth),就是经济增长而福祉或快乐减少。我不认为中国面对悲惨增长,因为人民的真正快乐应该没有减少(下详)。不过,中国面对一些可能造成悲惨增长的因素。如果能够减少这些因素的作用,就可以更加提高福祉。
以我所知,至少有四种完全不同的悲惨增长。第一,传统的悲惨增长是经济增长(生产可能性曲线外移、以增长前的价格为准的产值增加)使出口增加,而出口增加使贸易条件(出口货价格和进口货的价格比)变差,如果变差得很厉害,可能导致悲惨增长。这传统的悲惨增长的理论可能性是1950年代由著名经济学家Harry Johnson (1955) 和Jagdish Bhagwati (1958)提出与论证的。这悲惨增长原则上是可能的,但出现的条件很严格,实际例子应该不多,甚或没有。
更早的关于技术进步(或资本有机构成提高),而由于一些结构问题,使产量或工资减少所造成的悲惨结果,严格说不是悲惨增长,因为经济没有增长,反而是负增长。而且这些论述,或者难以长期成立或者论证有些问题,因此不把它们包括在悲惨增长中。
第二,笔者(Ng & Ng 2001; Ng 2003)讨论过的悲惨增长,是产量增加使环境破坏程度也增加,如果消费的边际福祉效应已经很小,而环保很重要(见如Chen等2013, Global Challenges Foundation 2015, Sherwood& Huber 2010) ,则可能造成悲惨增长。如果消费的边际福祉效应已经很小,为何人们还拼命赚钱呢?这一方面是因为相对收入和相对消费的重要性。你要有比我豪华的汽车,我要有比你大间的房子。然而,这种相对竞争,在社会层面并不能有效。一个人的相对地位的提高,表示其他人平均相对地位的下降。因此,在社会的层面,相对竞争是零和游戏,完全是一种浪费。但在个人层面,这可能是很理性和重要的(见如Frank 1999。)不过,我们还是可以设法减少对这方面的重视。
加强上述相对作用的一个因素是人们的过分的物质主义,当物质消费已经不能显著增加人们的福祉时,人们还是过分重视金钱,使收入增加而福祉减少。造成这种过分物质主义的因素包括人们天生的累积本能和后天的商业广告的影响。即使政府知道这个悲惨结果,而通过提高税收和增加环保投资来应对,也未必能够有效防止增长造成悲惨结果,因为环保投资成本很高,而效果未必很大。必须以低成本(例如税收)的方法来减少污染于未然,才能确保增长能够增加福祉。
第三个悲惨增长是经济增长而收入分配恶化很厉害,穷人收入可能都减少了,显然可能造成快乐减少。虽然经济增长在多数情形也减少贫穷,但约有一成或更多的相反的情形(Shaffer 2018)。这种情形是造成英国脱欧和美国特朗普上台的重要原因。
第四个悲惨增长是独子女政策造成的。几年前我读了魏尚进(哥伦比亚大学商学院)和张晓波(北大国家发展研究院)的关于悲惨增长的工作论文(Wei & Zhang, 2015),很受震撼。上述的悲惨增长不同,魏张的悲惨增长是独子女政策(加上人们对男孩的偏好和选择男女孩的方法) 造成男女比例失调(男多女少),这一方面使男子在面对更多竞争时,为了增加娶到妻子的机会,而增加储蓄、工作时间和冒险创业,从而提高经济增长率【甚至增加犯罪;见Cameron等2019】;一方面使人们的快乐水平下降,尤其是那些还是娶不到妻子的人。结果也是造成悲惨的增长。而且这负作用很强,男女比例从1.05增加到1.15,使认为自己快乐者的比例减少17.5%。根据魏张的数据分析,近年来的GDP增长,约有20%来源于男女比例失调。另外,其他学者也论证,男女比例失调使犯罪率明显增加。
男人们多赚钱,并不是外生条件变好而多赚,而是竞争条件变坏而内生调整,因此福利减少。而且,由于可婚女子的数目没有多少受到影响,男人们的调整,在个人层面可能是理性的,但在社会层面并没有增加娶到妻子的可能性,只是男男之间的相对竞争。但这和上述纯粹人际之间相对地位的竞争不同,不能说是纯粹的福利损失,因为男男之间的相对竞争,使可婚女子的条件变好了,使她们面对收入较高的可婚男子。假定男人们多赚钱的调整不是基于错误的认知,表示女人们偏好收入较高的可婚男子。然而,至少在福祉作用上,女人们面对的条件变好的程度,比男人们变坏的低,使总体快乐水平下降。这也是符合直观的,要不然男女比例失调反而是好事了。
中国经济几十年来极快速增长,许多客观指标大量提升,有目共睹。然而,不论是根据快乐研究的结论(见如Easterlin等2012),还是根据和人们的交谈,人们的主观幸福感好像并没有显著增加。这一方面很可能是人们的要求大量提高,而简单的快乐衡量掩盖实际快乐提升的事实(我们以后还会进一步讨论),但一方面也是有造成人们不快乐的许多重要因素,包括上述四种不同的悲惨增长。显然的,避免悲惨增长的对策包括环保、提高平等水平等,我们以后还会讨论。读者们,你们有没有自己认为有用的对策呢?
文献
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Two samples of more than 4,000 millionaires reveal two primary findings: First, only at high levels of wealth—in excess of US$8 million (Study 1) and US$10 million (Study 2)—are wealthier millionaires happier than millionaires with lower levels of wealth, though these differences are modest in magnitude. Second, controlling for total wealth, millionaires who have earned their wealth are moderately happier than those who inherited it. Taken together, these results suggest that, among millionaires, wealth may be likely to pay off in greater happiness only at very high levels of wealth, and when that wealth was earned rather than inherited.
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Income is known to be associated with happiness1, but debates persist about the exact nature of this relationship2,3. Does happiness rise indefinitely with income, or is there a point at which higher incomes no longer lead to greater well-being? We examine this question using data from the Gallup World Poll, a representative sample of over 1.7 million individuals worldwide. Controlling for demographic factors, we use spline regression models to statistically identify points of ‘income satiation’. Globally, we find that satiation occurs at $95,000 for life evaluation and $60,000 to $75,000 for emotional well-being. However, there is substantial variation across world regions, with satiation occurring later in wealthier regions. We also find that in certain parts of the world, incomes beyond satiation are associated with lower life evaluations. These findings on income and happiness have practical and theoretical significance at the individual, institutional and national levels. They point to a degree of happiness adaptation4,5and that money influences happiness through the fulfilment of both needs and increasing material desires.
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How do the wealthy spend their time, and does their time use relate to their greater well-being? Two large-scale surveys of millionaires and the general population show that millionaires spend their time in surprisingly similar ways as the general population. For example, millionaires spend the same amount of time as the general population cooking, shopping, and eating – and even spend more time on household chores. However, while millionaires and non-millionaires also spend the same amount of time engaging in leisure activities, a critical difference emerged: the wealthy engage in more active leisure (e.g., exercising and volunteering) and less passive leisure (e.g., watching TV and relaxing). Moreover, the extent to which wealthy individuals engage in greater active leisure helps to explain the gap in life satisfaction between millionaires and the general population. Together, these results further our understanding of when and how wealth translates into well-being.
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